Criminal Desire: An Integrated Theory of Crime

By Jeremy Gordon

Throughout the history of criminological thought, various theories on crime causation have been formulated. Unfortunately, many questions as to why individuals commit crime still remain unanswered. Wilson and Hernstein (1985) argue such a phenomenon is due to bad theories yielding incomplete views about the world. This can be explained, in this writer’s opinion, by a lack of integration among the major theorists of past and present instead choosing to limit the search for answers within the realm of their chosen perspective. By combining the ideas expressed by the concepts of differential association (Sutherland 1949) and anomie (Merton 1938) the present theory attempts to provide a more accurate and exhaustive explanation as to why some individuals commit crime where others do not.

The first section of this paper briefly explains the components of a good theory. Additionally, the sources from which the theory of criminal desire draws upon are outlined specifying any changes or improvements made. The next section presents the assumptions made about human nature arguing only one innate human characteristic exists, desire, and even that is ultimately shaped by the environment. Following this, the concepts associated with the theory, the causal process linking desire to criminal behavior, and a list of propositions tying the aforementioned concepts to one another are presented. Continuing, an outline of the three main hypotheses associated with the theory of criminal desire is presented along with an explanation of its falsifiability. The theory’s broad historical context and strong explanatory power is then discussed followed by a description of the various criminal justice policy implications brought into light. Crime prevention and treatment programs are also mentioned ultimately specifying the specific roles of various parts of the criminal justice system. This paper concludes with an analysis of previous studies measuring concepts similar to those included in the theory of criminal desire, specifically outlining supportive findings.

THEORY

According to Merton (1967:39) theory “refers to logically interconnected sets of propositions from which empirical uniformities can be derived.” In regards to what constitutes a good theory Sutton and Staw (1995) argue that a general lack in agreement exists among scholars. While this is true, a general theme can be observed in the literature. Social scientists primarily agree that the key purpose of any theory includes explanation and prediction (Reynolds 1971; Kaplan 1964). This is accomplished through the use of concepts organized in such a way that causal relationships are proposed explaining how and why various phenomenon exist.

An Integrated Theory

Although the theory of criminal desire constitutes a new idea within the criminological field, it is by no means an original theory. The ideas from two popular theories were combined and slightly altered in an attempt of providing a better explanation of criminal behavior. The first theory drawn upon is Sutherland’s (1949:75-77) differential association. According to differential association, criminal behavior is learned just like any other behavior through interactions with others. Associations, as Sutherland called them, result in the transference of definitions either favorable or unfavorable to the violation of law. Ultimately, a person becomes criminal due to an excess of definitions favorable to the violation of law.

Along the lines of differential association (Sutherland 1949) the theory of criminal desire holds that every human behavior is learned through interaction with the environment. However, the learning process is not limited to just personal associations, as is the case with Sutherland’s theory, instead acknowledging the influence of both humans and nonhuman objects.

The second theory drawn upon in the present formulation is Merton’s (1938) theory of anomie. This theory involves an interaction between culturally defined goals and what social arrangements make possible. According to Merton, if such goals are not achievable through legitimate practices than individuals are likely to resort to illegitimate means to achieve the same goal. In short, overemphasis on material success and lack of opportunity for such success leads to crime.

While the idea of Merton’s (1938) theory provides an adequate explanation of why some individuals turn to crime criticism exists regarding the ambiguity with regard to the meanings behind the terms he employed (Rosenfeld 1989). As such, the theory of criminal desire expands on the concepts established by Merton by providing adequate explanations of them including classifying each one as learned phenomena. Additionally, desire is proposed as the source of agitation, thereby leading one to commit crime, when the culturally defined goals of individuals cannot be achieved through legitimate processes.

HUMAN NATURE

While sharing common biological heritage, human beings are ultimately molded by the environment in which they live. Certain aspects of the body may function naturally but most behavior is not instinctive. Instead children are born as blank slates eventually learning to walk, talk, and act like humans. As such, humans begin as neither good nor evil and are eventually thrust into one of the two categories through a combination of genetics and more importantly their environment (Seville 1990).

It is assumed by the theory of criminal desire that only one aspect of an innate human nature can be identified, desire. Regardless, of biological make-up there exists in every person a deep-rooted need to yearn for things not in their possession. However, the specifics of what will be desired ultimately rests in the environment in which one lives. Through personal and impersonal contacts, an individual develops an understanding as to what he or she should achieve. Once goals have been established within the individual, their natural desire begins to take over. As the desire for something increases so does the necessity for obtaining it. Inability to satisfy the craving ultimately leads to its strengthening until it eventually consumes the individual. When this occurs the individual no longer cares how they will fulfill their desire typically turning to crime. Thus, criminal behavior is not a result of bad genes or an innate human nature to deviate, but environmentally defined goals and a failure to achieve those goals, though legitimate means, due to socially structured opportunity.

CONCEPTS

· Individual: A single human being beginning as neither good nor evil.

· Personal Associations: Repeated contact with humans in the form of intimate

personal groups. Taken form Sutherland (1947).

· Impersonal Associations: Repeated contact with nonhuman forms of

communication such as television and newspapers.

Taken from Sutherland (1947).

· Desire: An innate yearning for satisfaction of a culturally defined goal(s) within

each individual.

· Culturally defined goals: Things defined, through associations, as something the

individual should want and expect in life. Taken from

Merton (1938).

· Environment: The personal and impersonal associations experienced by the

individual.

· Social Arrangements: The legitimate means individuals have to obtain what the

want out of life (i.e. opportunity)

· Legitimate Means (Non-Criminal Behavior): Socially acceptable behavior,

according to those in power, with which individual goals can be reached.

· Crime: Behavior defined by society as illegal.

· Illegitimate Means (Criminal Behavior): A means used to satisfy inner

desires when unable to do so legitimately.

CAUSAL PROCESS

Individuals are brought into this world as neither good nor evil, ultimately knowing nothing. Unfortunately, humans are immediately thrust into an environment that begins to shape their identity. Influence comes from associations, both personal and impersonal, within an individual’s prescribed environment. A primary outcome of this influence is the development of desire. While inherently present in everyone, associations serve to sculpt desires into a yearning for culturally defined goals. Unfortunately, as Merton (1938) argues a person’s social arrangements determine whether they can achieve these goals through legitimate means. As such, if goals can be reached legitimately crime will not be committed. On the other hand, if social arrangements prevent individuals from satisfying their desire through legitimate means such desire will increase in magnitude. As the desire within an individual strengthens the need for an alternative method of achieving the goal becomes present. Through associations the individual will identify, learn, alternative means of reaching their goals. These alternative means are likely to be criminal in nature.

PROPOSITIONS

1. Personal and impersonal associations serve to shape individual desire.

2. Culturally defined goals which people desire are directly related to the personal and impersonal associations they come into contact with.

3. Ability to satisfy desire through legitimate means is directly related to social arrangements.

4. Desire increases in proportion with the inability to achieve culturally defined goals through legitimate means.

5. The strength of individual desire is positively related to the need for alternative methods of achieving goals.

6. The type of alternative method identified to satisfy desire is a direct result of personal and impersonal associations.

7. The commission of crime is directly related to an inability to satisfy desire for culturally defined goals through legitimate means.

HYPOTHESES

1. The ability to satisfy one’s desire for a culturally defined goal through legitimate means is inversely related to the strength of that desire.

- As the ability to satisfy desires through legitimate means decreases

the strength of those desires increase.

2. The strength of one’s desire is positively related to the commission of crime.

- As the strength of desires increase, the likelihood an individual will

commit a criminal act increases.

3. A positive correlation exists between the number of criminal associations possessed by an individual and choosing crime as an alternative means to satisfy desire.

- The more contact an individual has with crime the more likely they will

be to identify criminal behavior as an alternative method of achieving

culturally defined goals.

According to McPhee (1997:41) “who can say what is true? We [as scientists] can only say that some things are false.” Thus, for the proposed theory to be accepted by scholars, attempts to disprove of it would have to fail. Unfortunately, the concept of desire is arguably an unmeasurable characteristic as are other aspects. Luckily, there is one feature readily falsifiable, the presence of criminal associations. The theory of criminal desire holds that the identification of crime as a possible alternative for reaching one’s goals is dependent on the number of criminally oriented associations they come into contact with. Therefore, this theory could easily be disproved, hypothetically of course, by identifying individuals who had committed crime without the presence of these influences. This sort of research would have to involve interviews of convicted criminals in an attempt to identify the environment in which they lived. In doing so one should be able to discover the associations with which the person was influenced by as well as any the constraints preventing them from achieving their goals through legitimate means.

HISTORICAL CONTEXT

Since it assumed that desire is an innate trait existing within each individual the theory of criminal desire applies to all persons in all places at all times. This is not to say that desire is identical within each person just that it is present. It is recognized that each culture and time period is comprised of differing environments. Thus, while the process in which goals become culturally defined is identical, through personal and impersonal associations, the limits placed upon the achievement of those goals are not.

As identified by Groves and Frank (1986:69), “inequality narrows the range of effective choices open to individuals at lower stations of the stratification hierarchy.” In other words, this theory acknowledges that individuals in poorer communities are likely to resort to crime to satisfy their desires much sooner and more often than individuals from wealthy areas. Yet, some would argue that a higher social status produces even stronger influences to commit crimes it is just that such actions tend to be ignored by society (Sutherland 1949). Regardless of the goals defined and limits preventing achievement of these goals, it is argued that the process by which various people turn to crime is indistinguishable thereby allowing this theory to apply indiscriminately across a multitude of categories.

EXPLANATORY POWER

The theory of criminal desire, through the integration of two competing perspectives, serves to explain all types of criminal behavior, both violent and non-violent. The easiest of which involves economically driven crimes such as theft, robbery, and white-collar crimes. While involving various levels of income-oriented goals, ranging from a quick score for pocket money or economic security for the rest of ones life, each of these crimes are the direct result of a need to satisfy desires due to an inability to do so through legitimate means.

Further types of crime explained by this theory include rape and other sexual offenses. Messerschmidt (1993) describes these actions as ways in which men exert their dominance over women in an effort of promoting a sense of masculinity. These crimes, primarily committed by men, occur due to a deep-rooted desire to appear masculine when there is a general lack of opportunity to do so. Along these lines are assault, battery, and other generally “violent” crimes. As Katz (1988) argues individuals choosing to follow the “way of the badass” must appear tough, unwilling to be changed or dominated by the opinions of others, as well as appearing mean, willing to back up his meanness with violence if the situation requires.

Critics would probably argue that such statements are purely theoretical in so far as many individuals often choose to commit these types of crime without the presence of blocked opportunity for goal achievement. However, one must remember that this theory does not acknowledge the existence of a universal culture in which every thinks and acts the same. Instead, each individual is ultimately surrounded by a unique environment exerting various types of influences on that individual in the form of personal and impersonal associations. Thus, even the most erroneous crimes known to man, such as murder, are merely forms of achieving culturally defined goals when legitimate practices are incapable of doing so.

The only type of crime the theory of criminal desire could arguably have trouble accounting for include illegal acts committed on the spur of the moment without thinking. However, it is still argued that this type of crime can be considered goal-oriented behavior. For starters, there is a question of whether crime ever occurs without thinking. While individuals may only briefly contemplate on what is being done there is ultimately some sort of decision made otherwise action could not be taken. Additionally each crime involves some sort of gain. Why else would individuals put themselves at risk? Remember, culturally defined goals are unique to individuals thus the desire needing to be satisfied may be nothing more than having a good time, thereby accounting for most crimes assumed to be thoughtless, at least in this writer’s opinion.

POLICY IMPLICATIONS

Crime Prevention Programs

Since the theory of desire argues that individuals commit crime to reach culturally defined goals when they are unable to do through legitimate means and the majority of those goals involve some sort of economic gain the key to reducing the crime rate would be educating offenders. Education does not necessarily mean going to school. While that would be important to some offenders others may just need their skills enhanced. Thus, any type of vocational training would be deemed extremely beneficial since individuals could increase the number of legitimate means available to them in the pursuit of goal achievement.

Another form of crime prevention would involve an increase in the number of worthwhile activities for children. The problem with most low-income communities is a lack of positive role models. Due to this children grow up having contact with only criminal associations. Thus, the goals desired and the behavior seen as appropriate for satisfying those desires mimic those established by hardened criminals. If positive programs were implemented in these communities, as was the case with the Chicago Area Project (Kobrin 1959), juveniles would be less likely to associate with criminal elements thereby increasing their chances of setting and achieving appropriate goals through legitimate means.

Treatment Programs

Since it has been argued that there is nothing wrong with individuals who commit crime except the environment in which they were raised little in the way of treatment programs is needed. Instead, correctional institutions should focus on educating convicted offenders as described above in an effort to increase their ability to satisfy their desires through legitimate means. However, it is also believed that educational programs should not be limited to convicted offenders. Instead, similar programs must be offered to the general public so individuals can develop appropriate job skills prior to turning to crime.

The only true treatment oriented activities needed involve individuals addicted to drugs or alcohol. Such programs would need to focus on breaking an individual’s dependency before any attempts could be made to move them in a law-abiding direction. Once these individuals no longer require illicit substances for normal functioning they can be placed in educational programs to learn the proper skills needed to survive on the outside without committing crime.

ROLES OF THE CRIMINAL JUSTICE SYSTEM

Role of Police

The police would be needed as always, to enforce the law. However, there is also a need for law enforcement officers to become a positive part of the community. This can be done by getting involved in programs within communities guiding youths in the right direction. Such programs exist today, Drug Awareness Resistance Education for example, and serve to not only educate juveniles but also provide them with positive role models. It is believed that such efforts will not only begin to improve the conditions within the community but ultimately counteract the negative influences juveniles are often subjected to typically leading them towards a life of crime.

Role of Courts

The primary role of the courts according to this model does not just involve punishing offenders for crimes committed. The judicial system must also ensure that those individuals receive some form of skills training or education as described previously. Often criminals are punished for their crimes with little attempt made to ensure they will learn from their mistake. While punishment should be certain and swift so as to prevent crime form being classified as an easy alternative to achieving one’s goals there must also be present an attempt at helping the offender move beyond what they have done. This type of reasoning applies to individuals not convicted to prison as well. Rather than just allowing individuals to remain in the community if they have committed minor offenses require them to attend educational programs. Often individuals refuse to participate in these types of programs since they feel their reputation will be damaged. If the court actually required those individuals to attend they might actually learn something while still maintaining the reputation they have come to cherish, since they technically never chose to participate.

Role of Corrections

Correctional institutions must focus on providing adequate programs for incarcerated individuals with which they can develop the appropriate skills to satisfy their desires in legitimate ways. Additionally, such programs should be continually offered in the community for criminals upon release from prison. This is absolutely necessary since most individuals will be released into the same environment from which they came thus being subjected to a wave of negative influences. Along these lines care should be taken to ensure that positive role models are provided within the institution. If inmates merely come into contact with other inmates they will only learn new and more effective ways of committing crime. Ultimately, a sense of hope must be instilled within each individual if they are to ever believe that legitimate success is possible.

PREVIOUS STUDIES

The only studies that could effectively evaluate the factuality of the present theory are ones focusing on the associations possessed by criminals prior to their incarceration. Since such information is quite personal it will be necessary to speak one on one with individuals through personal interviews. Unfortunately, it must be realized that this methodology is not without constraints (Groves and Kahn, 1979:2). Typically, the major problems associated with personal interviews are high cost, interviewer bias, and lack of anonymity (Nachmias and Nachmias, 1992:228). Even though these are serious issues it is believed that the benefits of flexibility, control of the interview situation, high response rate, and ability to collect supplementary information, outweighs any disadvantage.

Several studies have been conducted measuring the strength of negative associations. For example, Erickson et al. (2000) measured the impact of social bonds on delinquent behavior by measuring both associations with deviant peers and susceptibility to the negative influences of peers. Along those lines Wong (1999) observed a positive relationship between the strength of associations with delinquent peers and the commission of such acts. Continuing, Catalano et al. (1996) and Labouvie (1996) found support for the ability one’s associations to explain and predict the use of illegal substances. While, Warr and Stafford (1991) argued the behavior of peers was much more influential than just mere associations or contact. As one can see from the literature criminal associations is an important topic in explaining crime, however desire is not. As such, research is needed in an attempt to link associations with desire thereby providing a more complete explanation of criminal behavior.

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